Science performs many tests as it tries to understand the physical and biological principles that make up the world around us. Tests and analysis of test results, it might correctly be argued, are the indispensable tools of modern science. However, scientists know that each test is subject to artifacts involved in both the collection and interpretation of data. To help alleviate this unavoidable property of scientific investigation, researchers typically employ a variety of tests whenever possible. Multiple avenues of examination can function to expose anomalous results of a particular test or, even better, confirm results through several different strategies of analysis. How many tests are enough to be confident of a given physical or biological phenomena? Simply put, one can never be too confident. The more independent lines of evidence the better. Further, the greater the importance of ...

Information processing is important in learning and memory. In fact, if new information is not processed it will not lead to permanent new memories and learning will not occur. Conversely, the more extensively new information is processed, the better it will be remembered. The steps involved in the input and processing of new information is summarized in the Information Processing Model. Let’s consider this model in overview. The Input arrow indicates new information entering the brain. Most information that we are presented with never makes it through the sensory register and is lost as indicated by the downward arrow on the left (leading to “Forgotten”). We receive an enormous amount of information, thousands of stimuli per second. We can not process so much information at one time. Consider, for example, the “feel” of your right foot at this very moment. If you choose to concentrate on it, you can actually sense information being sent from your foot to your brain. Obviously, it would be difficult to concentrate on anything else if we spent all of our time dealing with information coming from our right foot, let alone the rest of our body and environment. Therefore, we routinely filter out almost all information delivered to our brain through the sensory register...